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Guided Reading Activity 9-4 Spice Trade in Southeast Asia Answers

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Celebrated international commerce

The spice trade involved historical civilizations in Asia, Northeast Africa and Europe. Spices such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, pepper, nutmeg, star anise, clove and turmeric were known and used in antiquity and traded in the Eastern World.[i] These spices found their style into the Near East earlier the beginning of the Christian era, with fantastic tales hiding their truthful sources.[1]

The maritime aspect of the merchandise was dominated by the Austronesian peoples in Southeast Asia, namely the ancient Indonesian sailors which established routes from Southeast Asia (and afterward Communist china) to Sri Lanka and India by 1500 BC.[two] These goods were and then transported by country towards the Mediterranean and the Greco-Roman world via the incense route and the Roman–India routes by Indian and Persian traders.[three] The Austronesian maritime trade lanes later expanded into the Heart East and eastern Africa by the 1st millennium AD, resulting in the Austronesian colonization of Madagascar.

Within specific regions, the Kingdom of Axum (fifth century BC–AD 11th century) had pioneered the Red Sea route before the 1st century Advertizing. During the offset millennium AD, Ethiopians became the maritime trading power of the Red Sea. By this period, trade routes existed from Sri Lanka (the Roman Taprobane) and India, which had acquired maritime technology from early Austronesian contact. By mid-seventh century Advertizing, after the ascension of Islam, Arab traders started plying these maritime routes and dominated the western Indian Ocean maritime routes.

Arab traders eventually took over carrying appurtenances via the Levant and Venetian merchants to Europe until the rise of the Seljuk Turks in 1090. Later the Ottoman Turks held the route again past 1453 respectively. Overland routes helped the spice trade initially, but maritime merchandise routes led to tremendous growth in commercial activities to Europe.

The merchandise was changed by the Crusades and later the European Age of Discovery,[4] during which the spice trade, particularly in black pepper, became an influential activity for European traders.[5] From the 11th to the 15th centuries, the Italian maritime republics of Venice and Genoa monopolized the trade between Europe and Asia.[six] The Cape Route from Europe to the Indian Bounding main via the Cape of Good Hope was pioneered past the Portuguese explorer navigator Vasco da Gama in 1498, resulting in new maritime routes for trade.[7]

This merchandise, which collection world trade from the end of the Middle Ages well into the Renaissance,[5] ushered in an historic period of European domination in the East.[7] Channels such equally the Bay of Bengal served as bridges for cultural and commercial exchanges betwixt diverse cultures[four] equally nations struggled to gain control of the merchandise along the many spice routes.[1] In 1571 the Spanish opened the first trans-Pacific route between its territories of the Philippines and Mexico, served past the Manila Galleon. This merchandise route lasted until 1815. The Portuguese trade routes were mainly restricted and limited by the use of aboriginal routes, ports, and nations that were difficult to dominate. The Dutch were later able to bypass many of these issues by pioneering a direct ocean route from the Cape of Good Hope to the Sunda Strait in Republic of indonesia.

Origins [edit]

People from the Neolithic period traded in spices, obsidian, sea shells, precious stones and other high-value materials equally early on as the 10th millennium BC. The showtime to mention the merchandise in historical periods are the Egyptians. In the third millennium BC, they traded with the Land of Punt, which is believed to have been situated in an surface area encompassing northern Somalia, Republic of djibouti, Eritrea and the Scarlet Sea coast of Sudan.[8] [9]

The spice merchandise was associated with overland routes early on on, but maritime routes proved to exist the factor which helped the trade grow.[1] The beginning true maritime trade network in the Indian Sea was past the Austronesian peoples of Isle Southeast Asia,[ten] who congenital the first ocean-going ships.[xi] They established trade routes with Southern India and Sri Lanka as early as 1500 BC, ushering an commutation of fabric culture (similar catamarans, outrigger boats, lashed-lug and sewn-plank boats, and paan) and cultigens (similar coconuts, sandalwood, bananas, and sugarcane), as well every bit connecting the textile cultures of India and Red china. Indonesians in detail were trading in spices (mainly cinnamon and cassia) with E Africa using catamaran and outrigger boats and sailing with the help of the westerlies in the Indian Sea. This merchandise network expanded to reach as far as Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, resulting in the Austronesian colonization of Madagascar by the starting time half of the first millennium Advertisement. It continued into historic times, later becoming the Maritime Silk Road.[x] [12] [13] [14] [fifteen]

In the first millennium BC the Arabs, Phoenicians, and Indians were also engaged in sea and state merchandise in luxury goods such as spices, aureate, precious stones, leather of exotic animals, ebony and pearls. The sea trade was in the Crimson Ocean and the Indian Ocean. The sea road in the Red Sea was from Bab-el-Mandeb to Berenike, from there past land to the Nile, and then by boats to Alexandria. Luxury goods including Indian spices, ebony, silk and fine textiles were traded along the overland incense road.[1]

In the second half of the outset millennium BC the Arab tribes of South and West Arabia took command over the land merchandise of spices from South Arabia to the Mediterranean Body of water. These tribes were the M'ain, Qataban, Hadhramaut, Saba and Himyarite. In the northward the Nabateans took control of the trade road that crossed the Negev from Petra to Gaza. The trade enriched these tribes. South Arabia was chosen Eudaemon Arabia (the elated Arabia) by the Greeks and was on the agenda of conquests of Alexander of Macedonia earlier he died. The Indians and the Arabs had control over the body of water merchandise with India. In the belatedly second century BC, the Greeks from the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt learned from the Indians how to sail directly from Aden to the westward coast of Republic of india using the monsoon winds (as did Hippalus) and took control of the sea trade via Carmine Sea ports.[16]

Spices are discussed in biblical narratives, and there is literary prove for their use in ancient Greek and Roman social club. There is a record from Tamil texts of Greeks purchasing big sacks of black pepper from Republic of india, and many recipes in the 1st-century Roman cookbook Apicius make use of the spice. The merchandise in spices lessened after the fall of the Roman Empire, but demand for ginger, blackness pepper, cloves, cinnamon and nutmeg revived the trade in afterwards centuries.[17]

Arab merchandise and medieval Europe [edit]

Trade route in the Crimson Ocean linking Italy to south-due west India

Rome played a part in the spice trade during the fifth century, just this part, unlike the Arabian one, did not last through the Middle Ages.[1] The rise of Islam brought a meaning change to the merchandise as Radhanite Jewish and Arab merchants, especially from Egypt, eventually took over conveying goods via the Levant to Europe. At times, Jews enjoyed a virtual monopoly on the spice trade in large parts of Western Europe.[18]

The spice merchandise had brought corking riches to the Abbasid Caliphate and inspired famous legends such equally that of Sinbad the Sailor. These early sailors and merchants would oft ready sail from the port city of Basra and, after many ports of phone call, would return to sell their goods, including spices, in Baghdad. The fame of many spices such as nutmeg and cinnamon are attributed to these early on spice merchants.[19] [ failed verification ]

The Indian commercial connexion with South East Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia during the 7th and eighth centuries.[20] Arab traders — mainly descendants of sailors from Republic of yemen and Oman — dominated maritime routes throughout the Indian Sea, borer source regions in the Far E and linking to the secret "spice islands" (Maluku Islands and Banda Islands). The islands of Molucca besides observe mention in several records: a Javanese relate (1365) mentions the Moluccas and Maloko,[21] and navigational works of the 14th and 15th centuries contain the first unequivocal Arab reference to Moluccas.[21] Sulaima al-Mahr writes: "East of Timor [where sandalwood is establish] are the islands of Bandam and they are the islands where nutmeg and mace are constitute. The islands of cloves are chosen Maluku ....."[21]

Moluccan products were shipped to trading emporiums in India, passing through ports similar Kozhikode in Kerala and through Sri Lanka.[22] From there they were shipped westward across the ports of Arabia to the Near East, to Ormus in the Western farsi Gulf and Jeddah in the Red Ocean and sometimes to East Africa, where they were used for many purposes, including burial rites.[22] The Abbasids used Alexandria, Damietta, Aden and Siraf every bit entry ports to merchandise with Republic of india and Cathay.[23] Merchants arriving from Bharat in the port urban center of Aden paid tribute in class of musk, camphor, ambergris and sandalwood to Ibn Ziyad, the sultan of Republic of yemen.[23]

Indian spice exports detect mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century).[22] Chinese traveler Xuanzang mentions the town of Puri where "merchants depart for distant countries."[24]

From there, overland routes led to the Mediterranean coasts. From the 8th until the 15th century, maritime republics (Commonwealth of Venice, Republic of Pisa, Democracy of Genoa, Duchy of Amalfi, Duchy of Gaeta, Commonwealth of Ancona and Republic of Ragusa[25]) held a monopoly on European trade with the Eye East. The silk and spice merchandise, involving spices, incense, herbs, drugs and opium, made these Mediterranean metropolis-states extremely wealthy. Spices were among the nearly expensive and in-demand products of the Middle Ages, used in medicine as well as in the kitchen. They were all imported from Asia and Africa. Venetian and other navigators of maritime republics and so distributed the goods through Europe.

The Ottoman Empire, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, barred Europeans from of import combined country-sea routes.[26]

Age of Discovery: a new route and a New World [edit]

The Republic of Venice had go a formidable ability and a key histrion in the Eastern spice merchandise.[27] Other powers, in an attempt to break the Venetian hold on spice trade, began to build upward maritime adequacy.[1] Until the mid-15th century, trade with the Eastward was achieved through the Silk Route, with the Byzantine Empire and the Italian urban center-states of Venice and Genoa acting equally middlemen.

In 1453, however, the Ottoman Empire took control of the sole spice trade route that existed at the time later on the fall of Constantinople, and were in a favorable position to accuse hefty taxes on trade bound for the westward. The Western Europeans,[ which? ] non wanting to be dependent on an expansionist, non-Christian power for the lucrative commerce with the East, set out to detect an alternative route by sea around Africa.[ commendation needed ]

The first country to effort to circumnavigate Africa was Portugal, which had, since the early on 15th century, begun to explore northern Africa under Henry the Navigator. Emboldened by these early successes and eyeing a lucrative monopoly on a possible sea road to the Indies, the Portuguese starting time rounded the Cape of Good Promise in 1488 on an expedition led by Bartolomeu Dias.[28] Just nine years later in 1497, on the orders of Manuel I of Portugal, iv vessels under the command of navigator Vasco da Gama connected beyond to the eastern coast of Africa to Malindi and sailed across the Indian Ocean to Calicut, on the Malabar Coast in Kerala[7] in Due south Bharat — the capital of the local Zamorin rulers. The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore; the Portuguese Empire was the primeval European seaborne empire to abound from the spice merchandise.[7]

In 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca for Portugal, then the eye of Asian trade. Eastward of Malacca, Albuquerque sent several diplomatic and exploratory missions, including to the Moluccas. Learning the secret location of the Spice Islands, mainly the Banda Islands, and then the world source of nutmeg, he sent an expedition led by António de Abreu to Banda, where they were the first Europeans to arrive, in early 1512.[29] Abreu's expedition reached Buru, Ambon and Seram Islands, and so Banda.

From 1507 to 1515 Albuquerque tried to completely cake Arab and other traditional routes that stretched from the shores of Western Pacific to the Mediterranean Sea, through the conquest of strategic bases in the Persian Gulf and at the entry of the Red Body of water.

Past the early 16th century the Portuguese had complete control of the African sea route, which extended through a long network of routes that linked iii oceans, from the Moluccas (the Spice Islands) in the Pacific Body of water limits, through Malacca, Kerala and Sri Lanka, to Lisbon in Portugal.

The Crown of Castile had organized the expedition of Christopher Columbus to compete with Portugal for the spice trade with Asia, but when Columbus landed on the isle of Hispaniola (in what is now Haiti) instead of in the Indies, the search for a route to Asia was postponed until a few years later. After Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, the Spanish Crown prepared a westward voyage past Ferdinand Magellan in society to reach Asia from Spain beyond the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. On October 21, 1520, his trek crossed the Strait of Magellan in the southern tip of South America, opening the Pacific to European exploration. On March sixteen, 1521, the ships reached the Philippines and soon after the Spice Islands, ultimately resulting decades later in the Manila Galleon trade, the first due west spice trade road to Asia. Subsequently Magellan's death in the Philippines, navigator Juan Sebastian Elcano took command of the expedition and drove information technology across the Indian Ocean and dorsum to Spain, where they arrived in 1522 aboard the concluding remaining ship, the Victoria. For the next two-and-a-half centuries, Kingdom of spain controlled a vast trade network that linked three continents: Asia, the Americas and Europe. A global spice road had been created: from Manila in the Philippines (Asia) to Seville in Spain (Europe), via Acapulco in Mexico (North America).

Cultural diffusion [edit]

1 of the most important technological exchanges of the spice trade network was the early introduction of maritime technologies to Republic of india, the Middle E, E Africa, and China by the Austronesian peoples. These technologies include the plank-sewn hulls, catamarans, outrigger boats, and possibly the lateen sail. This is notwithstanding axiomatic in Sri Lankan and South Indian languages. For case, Tamil paṭavu, Telugu paḍava, and Kannada paḍahu, all meaning "transport", are all derived from Proto-Hesperonesian *padaw, "sailboat", with Austronesian cognates like Javanese perahu, Kadazan padau, Maranao padaw, Cebuano paráw, Samoan folau, Hawaiian halau, and Māori wharau.[13] [12] [14]

Austronesians also introduced many Austronesian cultigens to southern India, Sri Lanka, and eastern Africa that figured prominently in the spice merchandise.[30] They include bananas,[31] Pacific domesticated coconuts,[32] [33] Dioscorea yams,[34] wetland rice,[31] sandalwood,[35] giant taro,[36] Polynesian arrowroot,[37] ginger,[38] lengkuas,[30] tailed pepper,[39] betel,[twoscore] areca nut,[40] and sugarcane.[41] [42]

Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to exist associated with economic action and commerce as patrons, entrusted big funds which would later be used to benefit local economies by manor direction, craftsmanship, and promotion of trading activities.[43] Buddhism, in particular, traveled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, fine art, and literacy.[44] Islam spread throughout the Due east, reaching maritime Southeast Asia in the tenth century; Muslim merchants played a crucial part in the trade.[45] Christian missionaries, such every bit Saint Francis Xavier, were instrumental in the spread of Christianity in the East.[45] Christianity competed with Islam to become the dominant faith of the Moluccas.[45] Yet, the natives of the Spice Islands accommodated to aspects of both religions easily.[46]

The Portuguese colonial settlements saw traders such every bit the Gujarati banias, Southward Indian Chettis, Syrian Christians, Chinese from Fujian province, and Arabs from Aden involved in the spice merchandise.[47] Epics, languages, and cultural customs were borrowed by Southeast Asia from India, and after Mainland china.[4] Knowledge of Portuguese language became essential for merchants involved in the merchandise.[48] The colonial pepper trade drastically inverse the feel of modernity in Europe, and in Kerala and it brought, along with colonialism, early commercialism to India'due south Malabar Coast, changing cultures of work and caste.[49]

Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, notably present 24-hour interval Malaysia and Indonesia, where spice mixtures and black pepper became pop.[50] Conversely, Southeast Asian cuisine and crops was as well introduced to India and Sri Lanka, where rice cakes and coconut milk-based dishes are all the same dominant.[30] [32] [31] [38] [51]

European people intermarried with Indians and popularized valuable culinary skills, such every bit baking, in India.[52] Indian food, adapted to the European palate, became visible in England by 1811 as exclusive establishments began catering to the tastes of both the curious and those returning from India.[53] Opium was a role of the spice trade, and some people involved in the spice trade were driven by opium addiction.[54] [55]

Come across also [edit]

  • Silk Route
  • East Indies
  • Foodlogo2.svg Food portal

Bibliography [edit]

  • Collingham, Lizzie (Dec 2005). Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0195172416.
  • Corn, Charles; Debbie Glasserman (March 1999). The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade. Kodansha America. ISBN978-1568362496.
  • Donkin, Robin A. (Baronial 2003). Between East and West: The Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices Up to the Arrival of Europeans. Diane Publishing Company. ISBN978-0871692481.
  • Fage, John Donnelly; et al. (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa . Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0521215923.
  • Rawlinson, Hugh George (2001). Intercourse Between Bharat and the Western World: From the Earliest Times of the Fall of Rome. Asian Educational Services. ISBN978-8120615496.
  • Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Aboriginal Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0192804587.
  • Kalidasan, Vinod Kottayil (2015). "Routes of Pepper: Colonial Discourses around Spice Trade in Malabar" in Kerala Modernity: Ideas, Spaces and Practices in Transition, Shiju Sam Varughese and Sathese Chandra Bose (Eds). Orient Blackswan, New Delhi. ISBN978-81-250-5722-2.

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g "Spice Trade". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2016. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
  2. ^ Dick-Read, Robert (July 2006). "Republic of indonesia and Africa: questioning the origins of some of Africa'southward nigh famous icons". The Journal for Transdisciplinary Enquiry in Southern Africa. 2 (ane): 23–45. doi:x.4102/td.v2i1.307.
  3. ^ Fage 1975: 164
  4. ^ a b c Donkin 2003
  5. ^ a b Corn & Glasserman 1999: Prologue
  6. ^ "Erudite IAS - Online & Offline Classes". Brainy IAS. 2018-03-03. Retrieved 2021-09-22 .
  7. ^ a b c d Gama, Vasco da. The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Edition. Columbia University Press.
  8. ^ Simson Najovits, Egypt, body of the tree, Volume two, (Algora Publishing: 2004), p. 258.
  9. ^ Rawlinson 2001: 11-12
  10. ^ a b c Manguin, Pierre-Yves (2016). "Austronesian Aircraft in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships". In Campbell, Gwyn (ed.). Early Commutation between Africa and the Wider Indian Bounding main World. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 51–76. ISBN9783319338224.
  11. ^ Meacham, Steve (11 December 2008). "Austronesians were offset to sail the seas". The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 28 April 2019.
  12. ^ a b Doran, Edwin, Jr. (1974). "Outrigger Ages". The Journal of the Polynesian Guild. 83 (2): 130–140.
  13. ^ a b Mahdi, Waruno (1999). "The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean". In Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.). Archaeology and Linguistic communication III: Artefacts languages, and texts. One World Archaeology. Vol. 34. Routledge. pp. 144–179. ISBN0415100542. [ dead link ]
  14. ^ a b Doran, Edwin B. (1981). Wangka: Austronesian Canoe Origins. Texas A&One thousand University Printing. ISBN9780890961070.
  15. ^ Blench, Roger (2004). "Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo-Pacific region". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Clan. 24 (The Taipei Papers (Volume ii)): 31–50.
  16. ^ Shaw 2003: 426
  17. ^ The Medieval Spice Merchandise and the Diffusion of the Republic of chile Gastronomica Leap 2007 Vol. 7 Issue 2
  18. ^ Rabinowitz, Louis (1948). Jewish Merchant Adventurers: A Report of the Radanites. London: Edward Goldston. pp. 150–212.
  19. ^ "The Third Voyage of Sindbad the Seaman – The Arabian Nights – The Thousand and One Nights – Sir Richard Burton translator". Classiclit.virtually.com. 2009-11-02. Retrieved 2011-09-16 .
  20. ^ Donkin 2003: 59
  21. ^ a b c Donkin 2003: 88
  22. ^ a b c Donkin 2003: 92
  23. ^ a b Donkin 2003: 91–92
  24. ^ Donkin 2003: 65
  25. ^ Armando Lodolini, Le repubbliche del mare, Roma, Biblioteca di storia patria, 1967.
  26. ^ "International Schoolhouse History - MYP History". www.internationalschoolhistory.net . Retrieved 2020-05-25 .
  27. ^ Pollmer, Priv.Doz. Dr. Udo. "The spice trade and its importance for European expansion". Migration and Diffusion . Retrieved 27 June 2016.
  28. ^ Cosmic Encyclopedia: Bartolomeu Dias Retrieved November 29, 2007
  29. ^ Nathaniel'south Nutmeg: How One Man's Courage Changed the Grade of History, Milton, Giles (1999), pp. 5–vii
  30. ^ a b c Hoogervorst, Tom (2013). "If Only Plants Could talk...: Reconstructing Pre-Modern Biological Translocations in the Indian Ocean" (PDF). In Chandra, Satish; Prabha Ray, Himanshu (eds.). The Ocean, Identity and History: From the Bay of Bengal to the South People's republic of china Sea. Manohar. pp. 67–92. ISBN9788173049866.
  31. ^ a b c Lockard, Craig A. (2010). Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History. Cengage Learning. pp. 123–125. ISBN9781439085202.
  32. ^ a b
  33. ^ Crowther, Alison; Lucas, Leilani; Captain, Richard; Horton, Marker; Shipton, Ceri; Wright, Henry T.; Walshaw, Sarah; Pawlowicz, Matthew; Radimilahy, Chantal; Douka, Katerina; Picornell-Gelabert, Llorenç; Fuller, Dorian Q.; Boivin, Nicole L. (14 June 2016). "Ancient crops provide starting time archaeological signature of the westward Austronesian expansion". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (24): 6635–6640. doi:10.1073/pnas.1522714113. PMC4914162. PMID 27247383.
  34. ^ Barker, Graeme; Hunt, Chris; Barton, Huw; Gosden, Chris; Jones, Sam; Lloyd-Smith, Lindsay; Farr, Lucy; Nyirí, Borbala; O'Donnell, Shawn (August 2017). "The 'cultured rainforests' of Kalimantan" (PDF). 4th International. 448: 44–61. Bibcode:2017QuInt.448...44B. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2016.08.018.
  35. ^ Fox, James J. (2006). Within Austronesian Houses: Perspectives on Domestic Designs for Living. ANU E Printing. p. 21. ISBN9781920942847.
  36. ^ Matthews, Peter J. (1995). "Aroids and the Austronesians". Tropics. iv (two/3): 105–126. doi:10.3759/torrid zone.4.105.
  37. ^ Spennemann, Dirk H.R. (1994). "Traditional Arrowroot Product and Utilization in the Marshall islands". Journal of Ethnobiology. fourteen (2): 211–234.
  38. ^ a b Viestad A (2007). Where Season Was Born: Recipes and Culinary Travels Along the Indian Sea Spice Route. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. p. 89. ISBN9780811849654.
  39. ^ Ravindran, P.Northward. (2017). The Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices. CABI. ISBN9781780643151.
  40. ^ a b Zumbroich, Thomas J. (2007–2008). "The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond". eJournal of Indian Medicine. ane: 87–140.
  41. ^ Daniels, John; Daniels, Christian (April 1993). "Sugarcane in Prehistory". Archæology in Oceania. 28 (1): 1–vii. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.1993.tb00309.x.
  42. ^ Paterson, Andrew H.; Moore, Paul H.; Tom L., Tew (2012). "The Genetic pool of Saccharum Species and Their Improvement". In Paterson, Andrew H. (ed.). Genomics of the Saccharinae. Springer Scientific discipline & Concern Media. pp. 43–72. ISBN9781441959478.
  43. ^ Donkin 2003: 67
  44. ^ Donkin 2003: 69
  45. ^ a b c Corn & Glasserman 1999
  46. ^ Corn & Glasserman 1999: 105
  47. ^ Collingham 56: 2006
  48. ^ Corn & Glasserman 1999: 203
  49. ^ Vinod Kottayil Kalidasan, 'The Routes of Pepper: Colonial Discourses around the Spice Merchandise in Malabar', Kerala Modernity: Ideasa, Spaces and Practices in Transition, Ed. Shiju Sam Varughese and Satheese Chandra Bose, New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2015. For the link: "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-04-13. Retrieved 2015-04-13 . {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy equally championship (link)
  50. ^ Collingham 245: 2006
  51. ^ Dalby A (2002). Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices. Academy of California Press. ISBN9780520236745.
  52. ^ Collingham 61: 2006
  53. ^ Collingham 129: 2006
  54. ^ "Opium Throughout History | The Opium Kings | FRONTLINE | PBS". world wide web.pbs.org . Retrieved 2018-04-xiii .
  55. ^ Burger, M. (2003), The Forgotten Gold? The Importance of the Dutch opium merchandise in the Seventeenth Century

Farther reading [edit]

  • Borschberg, Peter (2017), 'The Value of Admiral Matelieff's Writings for Studying the History of Southeast Asia, c. 1600–1620,'. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 48(3): 414–435. doi:10.1017/S002246341700056X
  • Nabhan, Gary Paul: Cumin, Camels, and Caravans: A Spice Odyssey. [History of Spice Trade] Academy of California Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-520-26720-six [Print]; ISBN 978-0-520-95695-seven [eBook]
  • Pavo López, Marcos: Spices in maps. 5th centenary of the kickoff circumnavigation of the earth. [History of the spice trade through sometime maps] east-Perimetron, vol fifteen, no.2 (2020)

External links [edit]

Media related to Spice merchandise at Wikimedia Commons

  • The Spice Trade and the Age of Exploration
  • Trade betwixt the Romans and the Empires of Asia. Department of Aboriginal Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • The Spice Trade and its importance for European Expansion, Doz. Udo Pollmer

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice_trade

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